Mental Health Well-being of Dementia Carers

Mental Health Well-being of Dementia Carers Introduction Research is undertaken and applied across many different professions and disciplines, as it offers a basis for increasing knowledge, informed decision making and action (Minichiello, Sullivan, Greenwood Axford, 2004; DePoy Gitlin, 2011). Within the nursing profession research is the link between theory and practice and has influenced many changes to the way that nurses practice (Schneider, Elliot, LoBiondo-Wood Harber, 2003). Research has brought about improvements in the delivery of care which in turn contributes to improved patient outcomes (Loiselle, Profetto-McGrath, Poilt, Beck, 2007). Nursing research has made available the best evidence to support and underpin nursing practice as it is currently: this is essential to the achievement of optimum biopsychosocial results for the patient, their family members and their wider community. Furthermore research guides legislation and regulations at a government organisation level (LoBiondo-Wood Harber, 2010; DePoy Gitlin, 2011; Da vies Logan, 2012). Health research topic This assignment will explore how research is designed, conducted and applied to investigate and inform the improvement of mental health wellbeing of those who care for people with dementia. In an international study on the global prevalence of dementia published in 2006, experts estimated that there were 24.3 million people with dementia, with 4.6 million new cases of dementia every year, one new case every 7 seconds (Ferri, Prince, Brayne, Brodaty, Fratiglioni, Ganguli Scazufca, 2006). It is estimated that there are 50,000 New Zealanders currently diagnosed with dementia and by 2026 it is estimated to be close to 78,000 (Ministry of Health, 2013). The prevalence of this cognitive disease necessitates research to better understand the effects and implications dementia has on people and society and how society can be better equipped to face the psychosocial challenges dementia presents for those in caregiver roles. Research Paradigms Depoy and Gitlin (2011) define research as â€Å"multiple, systematic strategies to generate knowledge about human behaviour, human experience, and human environments in which the thinking and action processes of the research are clearly specified so that they are logical, understandable, confirmable, and useful† (Depoy Gitlin, 2011, pg. 6). There are two major research paradigms that underpin these systematic strategies, determining how a researcher will ‘think and act’. They are positivist and the naturalistic. A positivist paradigm is most closely allied with quantitative research and naturalistic paradigm is most often associated with qualitative research (Christensen Johnson, 2012, Loiselle et al. 2011). Each paradigm or approach is a perspective on research based on a set of shared assumptions, concepts, values, and practices (Christensen and Johnson, 2012). These two paradigms have two very distinct ontological, epistemological and methodological foundati ons. Quantitative research views the nature of the knowable and the nature of reality as being objective, material and structural. This worldview or perspective is that there is a reality ‘out there’ that is separable and independent from individual. That this reality can be verified and discovered through the scientific method is the fundamental assumption of positivism or the positivist paradigm (DePoy Gitlin, 2011; Loiselle et al. 2011; Christensen Johnson, 2012). The positivist or experimental-type perspective employed by quantitative research primarily follows the confirmatory scientific method because it focuses on hypothesis testing and theory testing (Christensen Johnson, 2012). Logical positivists believe that there is a single reality that can be discovered by reducing it into parts, and discovering the relationships among them. In other words, the logical, structural principles that guide some component of reality can be known. This concept is known as reductionism (DePoy Gitlin, 2011). Quantitative researchers typically use deductive reasoning to identify a single reality and generate predictions or hypotheses. They then use a systematic approach, progressing logically through a series of steps, according to a prespecified plan. The researchers use various â€Å"controls† to minimise biases and maximise precision and validity (DePoy Gitlin, 2011; Loiselle et al. 2011). Empirical evidence is rigorously and systematically gathered (directly or indirectly through the senses rather than personal hunches) using tested means. Quantitative information, being numeric information, is gathered then subsequently analyzed and measured through statistical procedures to deduce if a hypothesis is true or false (Loiselle et al, 2011). The hypothesis is confirmed or rejected on the basis of these empirical results. Qualitative research, on the other hand, take the view that as nature of the knowable and reality are mentally constructed by individual, they are multiple, subjective and personal. This worldview claims that reality is not a fixed entity but rather a construction of individuals participating in the research. That reality exists within a context, and many constructions are possible is the fundamental assumption of a naturalistic paradigm (Loiselle et al. 2011; Christensen and Johnson, 2012). Naturalistic inquiry theorists believe that ideas and individual interpretations are the lenses through which each individual knows and comes to understand and define the world. â€Å"Knowledge is based on how the individual perceives their experiences and how he or she understands his or her world† (Depoy Gitlin, p. 26). Naturalistic methods of enquiry attempt to capture these dynamic, holistic and individual aspects of phenomena in their entirety, within the context of those who are experiencing them. Therefore, naturalistic investigators emphasize understanding the human experience as it is lived, usually through the collection and analysis of qualitative materials that are narrative and subjective (Loiselle et al. 2011). Qualitative methods differ from that of quantitative in that procedures are flexible and can be modified to capitalize on findings that emerge during the course of study. Qualitative studies take place locally, in a natural setting, in the field, frequently over extended periods of time. Data collection and data analysis typically progress simultaneously . Consequently, naturalistic studies yield rich, in-depth information that can potentially clarify the multiple dimensions of a complicated phenomenon (Loiselle et al. 2011).t The scope of this assignment is to further examine and analyse quantitative research design and methodology and how it relates to the research of dementia†¦ Quantitative Experimental Design In experimental-type research, DePoy and Gitlin (p. 84) describe design as the plan or blueprint that specifies the procedures used to obtain empirical evidence to determine the relationship among variables of the study. In other words, the design is structured in such a way as to enable an examination of a hypothesized relationship among variables. Generally in quantitative research, hypotheses are constructed from general principles prior to data collection and then tested during the study. Experimental design is therefore well suited to answering questions about cause and effect or causation (Minichiello et al, 2004). The specific procedures actioned to obtain empirical evidence depend on the study and the design method used, but generally quantitative experimental designs involve sampling, data collection, data analysis and reporting. Investigators employ sampling techniques to select a subgroup that can accurately represent a population, defined as a group of persons, elements or both that share a set of common characteristics as predefined by the investigator. The intent is to be able to draw accurate conclusions about the population by studying a smaller group of elements (sample) (Minichiello et al, 2004, DePoy Gitlin, 2011). In quantitative research the collecting of data, quantifying information or measurement is a primary concern. Therefore the researcher must ensure the data instrument used is reliable and valid (DePoy Gitlin, 2011). Reliability refers to the degree of consistency with which an instrument measures an attribute and validity addresses the critical issue of the relationshi p between a concept and its measurement. It asks if whether what is being measured is a reflection of the underlying concept (Minichiello et al, 2004, DePoy Gitlin, 2011). The instrument can be one that the researcher designed themself, modified from another study, or an intact instrument that has been used by another researcher (Creswell, 1994). When experimental-type research is conducted, the researcher’s first preference is the selection of instruments that have demonstrated reliability and validity for the specific populations or phenomena the investigator wants to study. As is the case in the quantitative research articles explored later in this assignment. Statistical analysis is an important action process in experimental-type research that occurs at the conclusion of data collection and data preparation. It is at this juncture that data become meaningful, and lead to knowledge building that is descriptive, inferential or associational. From this analysis investigato rs can interpret and summarize data, generalise findings to the population from which the sample is drawn, and make causal statements and predictions (DePoy Gitlin, 2011). That part done. now how to tie this one to the next one below. True experimental design has three distinguishing properties namely; a randomised population sample, an intervention otherwise known as a manipulation and a control group for comparison (Nieswiadomy, 2008; Davis Logan, 2012). By randomly assigning subjects to an experimental group and a control group, the investigator attempts to develop equivalence, or eliminate subject bias, caused by inherent differences that may occur in the two groups (DePoy Gitlin, 2011). Investigators then manipulate an independent variable (IV) so that the effect of its presence, absence, or degree on the dependent variable (DV) can be observed. Manipulation is the action process of manoeuvring the independent variable for example the (IV) could be medication, a teaching plan or treatment etc. (Minichiello et al. 2004; LoBiondo-Wood Harber, 2010; DePoy Gitlin, 2011). The dependent variable is the variable that has changed due to the result of the manipulation e.g. the measured end result (Dempsey Dempsey , 2000; Minichiello et al, 2004). This enables researchers to study ‘cause and effect’ relationships (LoBiondo-Wood Harber, 2010; Hedges Williams, 2014). Within the health arena the ‘causes’ are often the interventions or treatments and the ‘effects’ are the final outcomes (Minichiello et al, 2004; Moule Hek, 2011). The control group is the comparison group that receives the usual treatment or care, compared to the experimental one under scrutiny. This ‘true’ experimental design is referred to as a randomized controlled trial (RCT) (LoBiondo-Wood Harber, 2010). RCT’s are considered the ‘superior’ design when investigating cause and effect relationships (LoBiondo-Wood Harber, 2010; Loiselle et al. 2011). This control of variance and over extraneous influences inherent in experimental design allows the researcher to state with a degree of statistical assuredness that the study outcomes are a consequence of either the manipulation of the independent variable or the consequence of that which was observed and analysed. In other words, the design provides a degree of certainty that an investigators observations are not haphazard or random but reflect what is considered to be a true and objective reality. Quantitative experimental designs therefore eliminate bias and the intrusion of unwanted factors that could confound findings and make them less credible (Depoy Gitlin, 2011). Although the true-experiment design is continually upheld as the best design to use to predict causal relationships, being the most ‘objective’ and ‘true’ scientific approach, it may be inappropriate for other forms of inquiry in health and human services. This is because not all research questions seek to predict causal relationships between independent and dependent variables. Moreover, in some cases, using a true-experimental design may present critical ethical concerns such that other design strategies may be more appropriate. this part doesnt quite fit yet. According to DePoy Gitlin (2011) quantitative or experimental type research define four categories namely non-experimental, quasi-experimental, pre-experimental and true experimental. In relation to the chosen articles, experimental design will be discussed as both articles are randomized controlled trials. Should we delete this paragraph? dunno. what does part 2 say about experimental and non-experimental. Depoy Gitlin (2011) suggest that a design in the experimental-type tradition should be chosen purposively because it fits the question, level of theory development, and setting or environment in which the research will be conducted. The next part of this assignment will examine two such pieces of research demonstrating purposeful use of experimental design in the specific research of curtailing psychosocial effects such as depression and mental health wellbeing of caregivers caring for someone with dementia. Experimental Research Examples The research articles chosen to critique are both RCT’s. Both are trials investigating the wellbeing of family caregivers of people with dementia. The objective of one study was to investigate the effectiveness of the intervention of a home based training programme supporting family caregivers with a family member who have dementia. The study used the â€Å"Medical Outcomes Study 36-item Short Form Survey† to collect data on physical well-being and the Chinese adaptation â€Å"Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale† to measure depressive symptoms (Kao, Huang, Huang, Lian, Chiu, Chen, Kwok, Hsu Shy, 2012). Results from the design showed positive statistical measurements for each category of physical health outcomes and a decreased rate in risk of depression for those in the experimental group compared with the control group. This study concluded that the home based caregiver training programme significantly improved the quality of life relating to heal th and decreased the risk for depressive symptoms (Kao, Huang, Huang, Lian, Chiu, Chen, Kwok, Hsu Shy, 2012) . The other RCT was investigating the effectiveness of an internet intervention â€Å"Mastery over Dementia† supporting family caregivers of people with dementia. Results from the regression analyses showed caregivers of the experimental group had decreased symptoms of depression and anxiety. Concluding that the internet course was an effective treatment (Blom, Zarit, GrootZwaaftink, Culjipers Pot, 2015). Experimental research design has strengths and weaknesses. The main strength of experimental research design is that they are the most effective for measuring cause and effect relationships (LoBiondo-Wood Harber, 2010). Due to the data obtained from experimental research designs knowledge has been applied and changes have been integrated in to action (Carr, 1994). The strength of random sampling is that it increases the possibility of being generalizable in the finding, however random selection is very time-consuming (Carr, 1994). With experimental type design the researcher remains detached from the subjects, the strength of this approach is prevention of researcher involvement guarding against any bias within the study (Carr, 1994). However they are often complex and unrealistic to measure in clinical environments and can be disruptive to peoples routine when implemented (LoBiondo-Wood Harber, 2010) . Other variables that can impact on findings is that when an intervention is bei ng administered by different people e.g. it is impossible to ensure different nurses deliver the intervention in the same way with each person (LoBiondo-Wood Harber, 2010). A further weakness is that many interventions required for studies are not agreeable to ethical consent e.g. doing an experimental design on people who smoke to measure adverse side effects (LoBiondo-Wood Harber, 2010). Due to these weaknesses many researchers resort to quazi-experimental design (Rewrite in own words)There is nothing inherently good or bad about a design. Every research study design has its particular strengths and weaknesses. The adequacy of a design is based on how well the design answers the research question that is posed. That is the most important criteria for evaluating a design. If it does not answer the research question then the design, regardless how rigorous it may appear, is not appropriate. It is also important to identify and understand the relative strength and weakness of each design element (DePoy Gitlin, 2011).

English poetry Essay

The second decade of the twentieth century, a change-over period in the history of English poetry, was not a very inspirational one for poets. The existing group of poets, the Neo-Romantics attempted in vain to keep the Romantic spirit alive by writing about nature and harmony but with the arrival of industrialization and the beginnings of the modern world, it became painfully clear that the lilting, peaceful Romantic style was in no way a reflection of the present state of affairs. The mechanized world of machines, factories and similarly regimented human societies, long ignored by the Neo-Romantics was finally examined and put into verse by T. S. Eliot. Of the numerous works that capture the nascent modern world, one that stands out in particular is ‘The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’. Eliot dives into the heart of urban decay in the first stanza itself, when he compares the evening to an etherized patient lying comatose on the operating table. The metaphor that symbolizes the numb, unquestioning society that inhabits the deserted streets, cheap hotels and sawdust restaurants captures a theme that is constantly revisited in this poem. The women who talk about Michelangelo do so as a ritual of fashion, without understanding anything about the art itself. Eliot goes on to compare the fog that spreads across the city to a cat that skulks on the rooftops before going to sleep. The fog that slips insidiously into every home represents the clouded judgment of the people that inherit the modern world. The protagonist in the poem echoes Marvell and the preacher in Ecclesiastes with the phrase, ‘there will be time, turning Marvell’s call to seize the moment and the preacher’s teaching- to everything there is a season- upside down to suit his indecisiveness. 2 The comparisons to Hamlet in the poem once again parallel the lack of resolve that characterizes the protagonist. He longs to be the rogue element in a society that picks up on the trivial things like one’s thinning hair, or depleted weight but fails to pay heed to life’s more important aspects. The protagonists envisions himself breaking the cycle and speaking life’s messages to the gossiping crowd only to falter at the moment of action. He finds himself pinned like an insect and unable to begin speaking his mind. He wonders if it is worth the trouble and anticipates that even if he were to speak, his message would be dismissed by as not being pertinent to the gossip that the society indulges in. His inability to make a change breeds some amount of self-loathing that surfaces in parches across the poem. Death- the eternal Footman- snickers at him for being afraid. He admits that he is neither a prophet nor Prince Hamlet; that he is merely an attendant lord whose capacity to act stops at staring a scene or two. The poem ends with the ageing protagonist taking a walk on the beach and slipping into another world where the mermaids are riding the waves and singing to each other. But even here, he believes that they will not sing to him. He lingers there for as long as he can, before he is awoken by the lifeless hand of human interaction and condemned for his lack of action, to drown in its throes. The themes that Eliot discusses through this poem and others like ‘The Burial of the Dead’ and ‘A Game of Chess’ explore and hit out against the soulless modern existence which moves along in a regimented stupor and parallels the oncoming wave of industrialization.

Divorce Is Becoming A Worldwide Occurrence - 1530 Words

Divorce is becoming a worldwide occurrence, notably affecting children’s well being. It radically alliterates their future causing damaging effects. According to (Julio Cà ¡ceres-Delpiano and Eugenio Giolito, 2008) nearly 50% of marriages end with divorce. 90% of children who lived in the USA in the 1960s stayed with their own biological parents, whereas today it makes up only 40% (Hetherington, E. Mavis, and Margaret Stanley-Hagan, 1999). Many children after a split of parents are exposed to a number of changes in the future. Their reaction to divorce can vary and depends on age, gender and personal characteristics. This essay will explain the effects of divorce on children under various aspects such as scholastic, psychological and social impact. In addition, it will contain information about the divorce rate in the US and present disparate reactions of the children that are involved. It will also include several suggestions for parents as to how to act toward children afte r divorce, in order to minimize the effects sustained. During the 1960s and 1980s, in the USA, there were substantial revisions in divorce legislation, which has been named as â€Å"Divorce Revolution† (Julio Cà ¡ceres-Delpiano and Eugenio Giolito, 2008). The main change of that law that was implemented was that a spouse had the right to ask for a divorce without the agreement of the other spouse. It was known as â€Å"Unilateral divorce†. Another change was performed in assets and subdividing of property on theShow MoreRelatedFactors that Affect Teen Sex Behavior650 Words   |  3 Pageswhole scenario is so intense that there are at least 2 to 3 cases happening each day. As there is no smoke without fire, for each and every occurrence, there is definitely a cause as to why it happens. Without any second thought, teen sex behavior is the main cause of this problem. 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George Huxley s Brave New World Essay - 1762 Words

Brave New World is political satire in which his author Huxley tries to make fun of a the growing society of his time by writing a story in which the government has a complete control over society by the means of science. Huxley’s imaginary world, according to critics, is called a dystopia, according to the Merriam Webster Dictionary a dystopia is a term to refer to â€Å"an imaginary place where people lead dehumanized and often fearful lives.† In short, Brave New World presents a setting where people do not have values or moral conscience. In general Brave New World than a book, it is a philosophical work in which Biblical analogies and moral values are purposely portrayed as God’s existence becomes one of the main themes hidden behind every citizen of the world state’s actions and their core values. The first strategy that Huxley uses to convey the importance of religious beliefs in his book is the creation of a dystopia. 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American Horror Story Animal Farm - 1114 Words

Hanna Gutierrez Gutierrez 1 Ms. Baker English IV- 5 01 February 2016 American Horror Story: Animal Farm â€Å"A rat is a pig is a dog is a boy† (â€Å"Animal Rights†). For decades, animal rights activist along with organizations such as PETA have been lobbying for legislative action on animal equality. Activists believe non-human animals should be granted the same protection under the law as humans, because they are implemented unethical treatment in factory farms, used needlessly for scientific research, and have a similar biological make up to humans, while the opposition argues that animal equality is immoral because of the Christian belief only humans are made in the image of God. Across the world farms, even organic, are mistreating†¦show more content†¦The animals are supposed to be able to graze freely, but instead they are locked up in overcrowded cages. Gutierrez 2 Clearly, new legislation on animal equality and improvement of standards of living need to be passed immediately. With new technology expanding the field of science, animal testing to find human cures has become irrelevant. â€Å"Most of these new alternatives that are emerging are coming from fields of biotechnology, hi-res scanning, and computer science† (Dvorsky). These new techniques make animal testing seem medieval. With biotechnology human organs are being replicated to practice test on. â€Å"Biotech firm Hurel has developed a lab grown human liver that can be used to break down chemicals† (Dvorsky). Animals who are known to be similar to humans, are no longer needed for research because the technological alternatives are much better. They are able to have stimulations of actual human organs and get better understandings of diseases and what is needed to cure it. Ultimately, in a world taken over by technology, out dated methods are not needed. Because animals are biologically similar to humans and achieve the same level if awareness, they should be granted the same rights. At Georgia State University’s Language and Research Centre studies are conducted on a female ape. She communicates using a keyboard and a synthesized voice (Cohen 58). Not only is the ape able to communicate via nonverbal cues, but nw is speaking at the same level as

Family Issues Free Essays

string(92) " of Finance and Economics ISSN 1450-2887 Issue 52 \(2010\)  © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc\." International Research Journal of Finance and Economics ISSN 1450-2887 Issue 52 (2010)  © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. You read "Family Issues" in category "Essay examples" 2010 http://www. eurojournals. We will write a custom essay sample on Family Issues or any similar topic only for you Order Now com/finance. htm Does Education Alleviate Poverty? Empirical Evidence from Pakistan Imran Sharif Chaudhry Associate Professor of Economics. Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan, Pakistan E-mail: imranchaudhry@bzu. edu. pk Shahnawaz Malik Professor of Economics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan, Pakistan E-mail: shahnawazmalik@bzu. edu. pk Abo ul Hassan Ph. D Research Fellow, Department of Economics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan, Pakistan E-mail: adam_smith_17@hotmail. com Muhammad Zahir Faridi Lecturer, Department of Economics, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan, Pakistan E-mail: zahirfaridi4u@yahoo. com Abstract Poverty has become a sensitive and ever remained issue almost in all developing countries of the world. Education plays a vital role in poverty alleviation. Therefore, it is important to investigate that whether different levels of education or literacy cause to alleviate poverty. The major objective of this study is to evaluate the effects of different levels of education and literacy on the incidence of poverty in Pakistan. Our results suggest that poverty alleviation process would be accelerated if resources are targeted at education sector especially in higher education. Pakistan presents a paradoxical situation. Until the late 1980s Pakistan had achieved a spectacular record of economic growth and reduced incidence of poverty remarkably, but the country had horrible social indicators. However when social indicators began to improve in the 1990s for a variety of reasons, both internally and externally driven, the average rate of economic growth declined. Contrary to the said situation, the general perception about Education is that the role of education in poverty alleviation, in close co-operation with other social sectors, is crucial. This paper is mainly intended to explore the reality that to what extent education is affective in poverty alleviation in Pakistan. In addition, some important macroeconomic variables have also been taken understudy to find out the reality of the problem. Keywords: Education; Poverty; Inflation; Economic Growth; Openness; Pakistan International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 52 (2010) 135 I. Introduction Poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon, encompassing inability to satisfy basic needs, lack of control over resources, lack of education and skills, poor health, malnutrition, lack of shelter, poor access to clean water and sanitation, vulnerability to shocks, violence and crime, lack of political freedom and voices. The poor are the true poverty experts. They assert on material well being, physical well being, social well being, security of food, security of law and order, public safety, safety from violence and civil conflicts, freedom of choice and action, being a part of the decision making body rather to be a victim of decision making body and the security of jobs. Poverty can be looked at from different angles and depending upon the perspective one adopts definitions of poverty may vary. It differs from country to country and from context to context. Poverty may be absolute or relative. Absolute poverty can be eradicated but relative poverty cannot. Relative poverty is a dynamic concept because it involves comparison between groups. It exists in all parts of the world, either in packets or on a much larger scale. In Pakistan both absolute and relative poverty exists normally, poverty is measured in monetary terms. The causes of poverty are also multidimensional. 1 There is no single cause that can explain it fully. Poverty is often related to a number of factors: physical, psychological, economic and sociocultural. Among the physical factors accounting for poverty are an unfavorable natural environment and lack of basic physical and economic infrastructure. These may also relate to poor health and malnutrition. Psychological factors refer to feel of hopelessness, helplessness, lack of confidence in one’s self and poor self-image resulting from inappropriate value system, cultural deprivation and undeveloped potential. These factors may also be related to an inability to participate in democratic processes and behavioral inadequacies aggravated by low levels of literacy and education. Education is the most important factor that distinguishes the poor from the non-poor; according to Pakistan’s Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 2001, the percentage of literate of households heads is 27 in poor households while for non-poor households it is 52. Though the origins of human capital theory can be traced to the earlier economists – from Adam Smith (1776) to Alfred Marshall (1920) – it is Theodore Schultz (1961) who created a ‘human investment revolution in economic thought’ by emphasizing the role of human capital in economic growth. Schultz (1961), Gary Becker (1964), Jacob Mincer (1972) and many others with their voluminous pioneering contributions placed education at a high pedestal in the theories of economic growth. Amartya Sen (1999) rightly argues that education constitutes a part of human freedom and human capability. . Over the period under study many important factors like unemployment, current account deficit and services growth rate have been contributed to why poverty is increasing even though education has increased consistently. We have tried to give a brief description of the debate of researchers that if increased education has significant impact on income and thus poverty or not or whether there are other factors mitigating or attenuating the impact of education on poverty. However in our analysis, the central focus has been on the role of education in poverty alleviation. Education has important implications for the analysis of changes in a poverty profile in a country. Keeping in view the issues high lighted above, this paper tries to answer following related questions. Does education play its role to alleviate poverty? What is the role of other key macroeconomic variables in poverty alleviation? What can be generalized about the impact of education on poverty? What are the important policy implications? These questions keep their extreme importance as answering the said questions will bring a solution to the hitherto puzzle that’s why Pakistan is lagging behind on the development path as compared to some developed countries who got independence later than us. 1 Technical consultation on literacy as a tool for the empowerment of the poor, Lampang, Thailand, 1997. 36 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 52 (2010) To pursue the problem understudy, this paper is technically divided into several parts. Firstly we have attempted to explain the conceptual and theoretical framework of education and poverty alleviation. So far as the empirical analysis is concerned, we have divided it into two portions. The first por tion presents the descriptive analyses and the second portion presents the econometric analysis which has been undertaken by considering autoregressive regression equations. II. Education and Poverty: A Theoretical Framework The economists often define education as having ‘direct effects’ and ‘indirect effects’. The direct effects of education are the imparting of knowledge and skills that are associated with higher wages. The indirect effects, also often referred to as external benefits, include fulfillment of basic needs, higher levels of democratic participation, better utilization of health facilities, shelter, water and sanitation and the additional effects which occur in woman’s behavior in decisions relating to fertility, family welfare and health. The relationship between education and poverty can also be examined by rate of return analysis, and production function analysis – at individual as well as social/national levels. Rates of return are estimated using either Mincerian earnings function (Mincer, 1972), or using the concept of marginal efficiency of capital that relates costs of education to the lifetime benefits, essentially earnings associated with education. III. Data and Methodological Issues In order to study the impact of education on poverty, the study chooses time series data, for thirty five years (1972-2007) for Pakistan. The poverty data sets are collected mainly from Malik (1988), Amjad and Kemal (1997), Jamal (2003) and various issues of Pakistan Economic Survey since 2005, while the data on other variables is collected from World Bank, World Development Indicators (WDI), April 2008, ESDS International, (Mimas), University of Manchester. To make time series data on poverty incidence, a linear interpolation technique is employed. The selected time period presents the paradoxical situation of Pakistan as both growth and social indicators move in opposite directions. That is why it is selected to understand this paradoxical situation. Thirty five years time period is long enough to capture long run effect of most of the variable constructed in this study. We have tried to keep in view the problem of endogeniety while selecting the explanatory variables for our analysis. The study chooses the absolute poverty (poverty headcount index), education literacy rate, primary school level enrollment rate, middle school level and the university level enrollment widely used proxies for education) as the key variables. In addition, some useful variables (Growth rate, inflation rate, and Trade openness) have also been included in our model. In this study, autoregressive models are employed for econometric empirical investigation. In our first poverty autoregressive regression model, growth, literacy rate, CPI, and hcr(-1) are used to analyze while in the second model, some enrollment rates at various levels are considered. In order to achieve the objectives of the study, trade openness is also considered to check the robustness of globalization. Log values of the variables are used in the analysis. We postulate that the incidence of poverty prevailing in the economy is significantly dependent on higher education level. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 52 (2010) 137 IV. Results and Discussions a) Descriptive Analysis Our complete data set consist of 35 years of annual observations from 1973-2007 on the selected variables. The descriptive statistic is reported in table 1 which states that the average of head count ratio (HCR) for our study period is 27. 63% with a standard deviation (SD) of 6. 74. The average of primary school enrollment rate is 11316. 8 with 6204. 18, the value of its standard deviation (SD). Middle school enrollment is 2667. 611 on an average and with standard deviation (SD) 1326. 06. The average values for university enrollment rate, real gross domestic product (RGDP) and openness are 83045. 19, 22879. 24, 33. 81 with the value of standard deviations 65444. 71, 5756. 76, 3. 18 are given accordingly. As far as skewness of v ariables is concerned head count ratio (HCR), primary school enrollment rate, middle school enrollment rate and university enrollment rate are skewed on the rightward whereas openness is skewed leftward. All the variables are skewed a little. Table 1: Descriptive Statistics HCR 27. 63 25. 20 45. 75 20. 71 6. 74 1. 04 3. 26 6. 64 0. 04 LITR 36. 93 34. 35 55. 00 22. 10 10. 92 0. 24 1. 56 3. 47 0. 18 MIDDLE 2667. 61 2350. 00 5368. 00 963. 00 1326. 06 0. 36 1. 83 2. 84 0. 24 PRIMARY 11316. 78 9827. 00 24465. 00 4210. 00 6204. 18 0. 57 2. 02 3. 36 0. 19 UNIV 83045. 19 65642. 00 296812. 00 17507. 00 65444. 71 1. 76 5. 59 28. 74 0. 00 OPEN 33. 81 34. 35 38. 91 27. 72 3. 18 -0. 30 2. 19 1. 53 0. 47 RGDP 22879. 24 23859. 71 33820. 04 14033. 11 5756. 76 -0. 06 1. 86 1. 97 0. 37 CPI 56. 51 39. 73 149. 0 7. 40 41. 73 0. 67 2. 16 3. 77 0. 15 Mean Median Maximum Minimum Std. Dev. Skewness Kurtosis Jarque-Bera Probability Kurtosis is a measure whether the data set is peaked or flat relative to a normal distribution. Kurtosis statistic of the variables shows that only HCR and university enrollment is Leptokurtic (long tailed or high peakedness) and all other variables are Platykurtic (relatively nar rower tailed then the normal curve. However the value of HCR is though high compared to the value of Meso-kurtic curve but it is not too high from the value desired for a normal distribution. The Jerque-Bera (JB) test of normality gives joint hypothesis of skewness and kurtosis. Jerque-Bera test of normality suggest that if the computed P-value of JB-statistic of university enrollment rate is sufficiently low as the value of the statistic is very different from zero, we state that the residuals for university enrollment rate is not normally distributed. For all other variables included in the present study, it is concluded that residuals for these variables are normally distributed. Table 2: Correlation Matrix HCR 1. 00 -0. 35 -0. 37 -0. 28 -0. 30 -0. 9 -0. 53 -0. 27 LITR 1. 00 0. 99 0. 98 0. 84 0. 25 0. 97 0. 98 MIDDLE 1. 00 0. 99 0. 86 0. 28 0. 97 0. 98 PRIMARY UNIV OPEN RGDP CPI HCR LITR MIDDLE PRIMARY UNIV OPEN RGDP CPI 1. 00 0. 89 0. 20 0. 95 0. 99 1. 00 0. 18 0. 84 0. 91 1. 00 0. 39 0. 17 1. 00 0. 94 1. 00 The degree of the relationship of the variables is also estimated and reported in table 2. All the variables are negatively correlated with each other. The result s state that openness is highly correlated and primary, middle, university enrollment rates and RGDP are moderately correlated with HCR. 138 International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 52 (2010) b) Autoregressive Regression Analysis In our analysis, we have used a data set using time series ranging from 1973-2007. To investigate the significance of education (literacy) on the incidence of absolute Poverty, we have following autoregressive regression models. The robustness of the models is examined by including and excluding some important macroeconomic variables in our analysis. The model is given as below: The Poverty Autoregressive Regression Model- 1 LHCR = ? 0 + ? 1 LRGDP + ? LLITR + ? 3 LCPI + ? 4 LOPEN + ? 5 LHCR (? 1) + ? i Table 3 presents the estimation results in which head count index (HCI) is the dependent variable and the variables such as growth rate, literacy rate, consumer price index (CPI) and head count index (HCI) for the previous year are all explanatory variables in the present analysis. The value of adjusted Rsquared is 94. 5%, implying that 94. 6% of the variation in the d ependent variable is explained by the independent variable. The value of R-squared clearly shows robustness of our results. The value of hstatistic is 1. 8, the results indicates that there is no significant autocorrelation problem in the error. The coefficient for growth verifies our theoretical expectations, implying an inverse relationship between poverty and growth. The coefficient for growth is highly significant putting an immense effect on poverty. The results verify the findings of Sarris who could find that overall economic growth reduces overall poverty. The coefficient for literacy is significant in the poverty regression analysis. However the variable is inversely related with the dependent variable which verifies the theoretical relationship of the two variables. The above results follow the findings of Dollar and Kraay (2002) who have concluded that growth is a prominent factor in eliminating poverty and that the impact of low level of educational attainment is not so much important. The coefficient of the consumer price index (CPI) having an expected theoretical sign, implies a positive relationship with poverty. However coefficient is not statistically highly significant. Our results also second the findings of Romer and Romer who believed that an increase in inflation will be associated with a decline in the unemployment in the short run that may well relatively benefit the poor. The findings of Agenor (1998) also strengthen our faith on the outcome of our analysis implying the fact about the poverty rates to be positively related with inflation. The previous year’s poverty is highly significant with the incidence of poverty. The coefficient of the variable is keeping a postulated positive sign. The best justification of the result is given by the Ragner Nurkse who could observe that a â€Å"country is poor because it’s poor. † Although the theoretical expectations of our present study are fulfilled yet we have included some more important variables pertaining to the human capital. We have included primary, middle and university enrollment rates instead of the literacy rate in our model. In order to check the impact of globalization on the incidence of poverty, we have included the trade openness in our analysis. The coefficient of openness is negative and insignificant. Table 3: Estimates of the Model-I Coefficient 5. 77051 -0. 62553 0. 512801 0. 004567 -0. 123046 0. 713883 0. 94 0. 93 1. 58 Std. Error 2. 62493 0. 300753 0. 263391 0. 085448 0. 137595 0. 094954 t-Statistic 2. 198348 -2. 079882 1. 946923 0. 053446 -0. 89426 7. 518185 F-Stat Prob Prob. 0. 0361 0. 0465 0. 0613 0. 9577 0. 3785 0. 0 99. 93 0. 00 Variable C LLGDP LLITR LCPI LOPEN LHCR(-1) R Squared Adj R Squared h-Statistic International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 52 (2010) 139 The Poverty Autoregressive Regression Model-2 It is a vivid fact that a problem like poverty cannot be eradicated at all. Owing to the said fact study is intended to explore the answer of the ques tion â€Å"Does education alleviate poverty? † To investigate the query, we have followed the regression model. We have developed the poverty regression model. Primary, middle and university enrollment rates as a proxy for education are used in our model. The model is given below: ? ? 0 + ? 1 LRGDP + ? 2 LPRIMARY + ? 3 LMIDDLE + ? 4 LUNIV + ? Poverty = ? ? ? ? 5 LCPI + ? 6 LOPEN + ? 7 LHCR(? 1) +  µ i ? Table 4 presents the estimation results for the poverty regression analysis where the dependent variable is the poverty had count index (HCI) and remaining seven variables namely log of real gross domestic product, log of primary school enrollment, log of middle school enrollment, log of university enrollment, log of consumer price index, log of openness and the log of head count ratio of the previous year are all independent variables. Note that the adjusted R-squared is 95. 9% implying that the approximately 95. 9% variation in the dependent variable is explained by the independent variables. The coefficient for LRGDP is keeping a negative sign implying the inverse relationship of LRGDP with the incidence of poverty. The theoretical relationship of LRGDP and LHCR also supports the negative relationship of these two variables. But the coefficient for LRGDP is statistically insignificant pervading a little effect on the incidence of poverty. The coefficient for log of primary enrollment rate and log of middle enrollment rate both keep a positive relationship with the incidence of poverty implying that both the standards minutely aggravate the incidence of poverty. The coefficients for both the levels are statistically insignificant which shows lesser nuisance value of primary and middle standards of education. The results also match with the findings of Rodriguez K Smith (1994) and Coulombe and Mckay (1996) who believe that the likelihood of being poor is higher for the lower levels of education. The coefficient for the log of university enrollment rate is statistically highly significant in the poverty regression analysis as shown in the table 3. The variable is inversely related with the dependent variable which verifies the theoretical relationship of the two variables. The estimation results verify the findings of all those who believe in an effective role of human development of poverty alleviation. The estimation results stay in line with the findings of Tilak (1994) which emphasize on the role of education. The results also explain that higher education is one of the most powerful means to reduce poverty. Our results also match with the findings of King (2005) who has argued that the agenda of the millennium development goals for education cannot be achieved without giving right consideration to higher education. All the prominent approaches of development like the human capital approach, the basic need approach, the human development approach and the capability approach which recognize the inverse relation of education and human poverty stay in line with our results. The coefficient for inflation rate in the poverty regression analysis for log values has become significant statistically and it is positively related with the poverty head count index. The postulated positive sign of inflation portrays the fact that inflation is regarded as more of a problem by the poor. The fact was also found by William Easterly and Stanlay Fischer (2001). According to them the rich are better able to protect themselves against, or benefit from; the effects of inflation then are the poor. The coefficient of openness is keeping a postulated negative sign, implying an inverse relationship between the incidence of poverty and openness. The estimation result shows that openness is powerfully influencing the poverty head count index as the coefficient of openness is found highly statistically significant. The results match with the findings of Derek H. C. Chen, Thilak Ranawera and Andriy Storozhuk who argue that high level of globalization, globalization would tend to increase poverty. The coefficient for the poverty of previous year is statistically highly significant, keeping a positive relationship with poverty. 40 Table 4: International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 52 (2010) Estimates of the Model-2 Coefficient 3. 707976 -0. 205005 0. 060653 0. 042189 -0. 154165 0. 127132 -0. 186327 0. 796384 0. 96 0. 95 -1. 68 Std. Error 1. 937434 0. 246698 0. 1637 0. 190211 0. 04069 0. 0777 0. 110726 0. 081578 t-Statistic 1. 913859 -0. 830995 0. 370514 0. 221801 -3. 788787 1. 63619 -1. 682781 9. 762301 F-Sat Prob Prob. 0. 0663 0. 4133 0. 7139 0. 8261 0. 0008 0. 1134 0. 1039 0. 00 114. 37 0. 00 Variable C LLGDP LPRIMAR LMIDDLE LUNI LCPI LOPEN LHCR(-1) R Squared Adj R Squared h Statistic V. Conclusion and Some Policy Recommendations In this paper, we addressed a key issue in the current debate on economic development: the role of education in poverty alleviation. We have reviewed the empirical evidence on the relationship between education and poverty. The link of education to poverty is one of the most important dimensions of policies towards poverty. Education may affect poverty in many ways. It may raise the incomes of those with education. It may in addition, by promoting growth in the economy raise the incomes of those with given levels of education. To measure education we used, among others, the literacy rate, primary education level, middle education level and university education level as proxies for education. To measure poverty, we emphasized on the concept of absolute poverty, using the poverty headcount index and as a proxy for relative poverty. We have used the econometric techniques to sketch a few stylized facts in a very complex framework of relationship. The present study incorporates macroeconomic, structural and policy variables to poverty headcount index and education. More specifically, the poverty equation links the incidence of poverty to CPI, growth, literacy rate, primary school education, middle school education and university education level and openness. The said relationship thus enables the changes in poverty due to the changes in macroeconomic or policy variables to be projected. The relationship is empirically estimated using time series regressions, based on thirty five years data of Pakistan from 1973 to 2007, which determined the magnitudes of the effects of the above mentioned macroeconomic, structural and policy variables on poverty. The results from the empirical analysis indicate that the university education significantly alleviates the incidence of absolute poverty. It is concluded that university education comes up with a powerful tool for poverty alleviation, keeping an inverse relationship with the dependent variable. As the higher education increases, the level of poverty decreases in the country. This result confirms the expectations that poverty is highly influenced by education. Local universities help developing countries in improving the skills of human capital which ultimately become helpful in poverty alleviating. University graduates have the specialized skills to earn a living and infuse their sector of employment- whether in the private industry, the public sector or civil society-with the enterprise that underpins success. Getting universal primary education, one of the millennium development goals, without the higher education would simply mean increasing the burden of unskilled population on the economy. Some people consider university education a luxury for developing countries. It is not a luxury, it is essential. Our estimation results confirm the best known approaches like the human capital approach, the basic needs approach, the human development approach and the Sen’s capabilities approach as all four approaches mainly emphasize on the attainment of education for economic development. Our estimation results carry an important policy implication-namely that the spread or the distribution of higher education among the population can have a powerful impact on their welfare. A household with no education among any of its members may benefit from even one member gaining access to International Research Journal of Finance and Economics – Issue 52 (2010) 141 education, beyond the immediate gains to that particular individual. And this is not only the case when an improvement in the education of the family’s children, but also it becomes the better and immediate source of earning opportunities for other members. Our empirical results confirm that education plays an effective role in poverty alleviation. Accordingly, a focus of economic policies on education in order to reduce poverty and to speed up development appears to be justified. Inflation also becomes the cause of poverty while trade openness reduces poverty significantly. Nevertheless, it is recommended that inflation controlled and trade opened policies will definitely and significantly address this issue of poverty alleviation in Pakistan. References [1] [2] [3] [4] Agenor, Pierre-Richard (1998). Stabilization policies, poverty and the Labour Market, Mimeo, IMF and World Bank. Amjad, Rashid, and Kemal, A. R. (1997). Macroeconomic policies and their impact on poverty alleviation in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review, 36(1), 39-68. Becker, Gary S. (1964). Human Capital. New York Colombia University Press for NBER Chen, Derek H. C. , Ranaweera, Thilak and Storozhuk, Andriy, (2004). The RMSM-X+P: A Minimal Poverty Module for the RMSM-X (May 11, 2004). World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 3304. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn. com/abstract=610349 Dollar D, Kraay A (2002). Growth is good for the poor. Journal of Economic Growth, 7,195-225. Irfan, Muhammad (2001). Global Trends on Education. The Oxfam Education Report (2001), Chapter 2. Jamal, H. (2003). Poverty and inequality during the adjustment decade: Empirical findings from household surveys. The Pakistan Development Review, 42(2), 125-136. Khan, Mosin (1990). Macroeconomic Policies and the Balance of Payments in Pakistan. 197286, IMF Working Paper /90 /78, Washington D. C. Malik, Muhammad Hussain (1988). Some New Evidence on the Incidence of Poverty in Pakistan. The Pakistan Development Review, 27(4), 509-516. Marshall, Alfred. Principles of Economics. London: Macmillan 1890 (1st edition); (1920) (8th edition). Book VI, Ch. IV, 2, 3 and 4 (pp. 560—566); Chapter XI, 1 (pp. 660—661) and Chapter XII,  § 9 (pp. 681—684). Mincer, Jacob (1972). Schooling, Experience and Earnings. New York: NBER. Mincer, Jacob (1958). Investment in Human Capital and Personal Income Distribution. Journal of Political Economy, 66. Ministry of Finance Pakistan (2001). Combating Poverty in Pakistan, www. finance. gov. pk Pakistan Economic Survey (various Issues), Ministry of finance, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad. Romer, Christina and David Romer (1998). Monetary Policy and the Well-Being of the Poor. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 6793, November Sarris, Alexender H. (2001). The Role of Economic Development and Poverty Reduction: An Empirical and Conceptual Foundation. University of Athens, Athens. Schultz, Theodore W. (1961). Education and Economic Growth. In N. B. Henry (Ed), social factor influencing education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Sen, Amartya (1999). Development as Freedom. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Smith, Adam (1776). An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. London. (First edition). London: George Rutledge Sons. 1903. pp. 78-79. World Bank, World Development Indicators (WDI). (April 2008). ESDS International, (Mimas): University of Manchester. [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] How to cite Family Issues, Essay examples

Organs And Organ Systems To Organelles Essay Example For Students

Organs And Organ Systems To Organelles Essay The human body consists of many different organs and organ systems, which are made up of billions of cells. Inside these cells there are ?ˆ?tiny organs?ˆ?,or organelles. These organelles act in many ways like the organs and systems of the body. To better understand the relationship between them, I am going to compare and contrast their differences and their similarities. The brain is the control center of the human body. It sends and receives messages to the rest of the body. The brain is made up of many different parts, and each part has its own job. The nucleus of a cell is very similar to the brain because it is the control center of the cell. It too sends and receives messages, only throughout the cell. The nucleus is made up of many other parts, which have all have special jobs also. The brain and nucleus are alike in several ways, but contrast in one primary area. The brain sends messages by neurons and electric impulses, while the nucleus does it by means of messenger RNA. The body has a shape that is contributed to by the muscular and skeletal systems. Bones provide the body with framework, and the muscles allow movement. The cell has similar organelles, the cytoplasm and the microtubules, which provide the cell with form. The microtubules are tube-like structures that act like bones do in humans, they give shape and support to the cell. The cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that keeps things in place, and restricts the movement of organelles in the cell. The main difference between them is the fact that microtubules aren?ˆâ„ ¢t joined by anything like a ligament or a tendon and cytoplasm doesn?ˆâ„ ¢t contract like muscles do. The digestive system of the human body is made up of several organs that work together to break down food so it can be used in the body. Similar organelles in the cell are endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, and the golgi body. Endoplasmic reticulum is used in the synthesis of molecules entering the cell. The ribosomes produce protein and send them to the places in the cell that needs it. The golgi body is the ?ˆ?packaging site?ˆ?. All three of thes organelles play an important role in processing molecules in the cell. However, they are different from the digestive system in their anatomy and the way they are arranged. In the human body, the largest organ, the skin, is responsible for protecting the body. It is the outer covering and it allows things in and out of the body through pores. In the cell, the largest organelle is the cell membrane and it too is responsible for protecting the cell. Both the skin and the cell membrane have more than one layer. The primary difference in the two is the cell membrane is selectively permeable. In order for human life to continue itself, it must reproduce. The same applies to cells. The reproduction system in the human body is responsible for this. The organelle in the cell which is compared to reproduction are the centrioles. They aid in the distribution of parts in the nucleus to newly formed cells. Although the two share the job of reproduction, they are different in many ways. The uniting of sperm and egg is the main difference. This doesn?ˆâ„ ¢t occur in cell reproduction. In cells, organs, and organ systems the anatomy may be very different in some ways, but the physiology in some cases is very similar. When you think of an organelle now, you?ˆâ„ ¢ll know why they call them ?ˆ?tiny organs?ˆ?. Anatomy and Physiology